Assistive+Devices

Anita Adkins



Juliet Braille embosser: Similar to a print printer, this machine produces Braille versions of textbooks, graphics, student assignments, and more. Laptop: This laptop contains software that enables the blind to participate in classroom and homework activities. For example, Duxbury, a software program that translates print into Braille, can be used to convert print documents into a language that enables the material to be brailled using a Braille printer, such as a Juliet embosser. Kurzweil software allows a blind user, in conjunction with a scanner, to read typed print aloud using screenreader software, another software program the blind use on the computer. Some examples of screenreader programs include JAWS for Windows, NVDA, and Window Eyes. PAC Mate: This device is a PDA and contains pocket-sized programs, such as Microsoft Word, a calculator, a stopwatch feature, and more. The Braille display converts any inputted text that would be visible on a computer monitor into Braille, and JAWS verbally speaks what is visible on the screen and announces characters aloud as they are typed. The benefits for students who use this PAC Mate is that the unit requires extremely little booting time and its battery lasts for much longer than a laptop battery. Perkins Braillewriter: Similar to a typewriter, this device enables students to instantly produce Braille for notetaking, labeling, and other Braille writing needs. Talking calculator: Equivalent to a regular calculator, this talking calculator verbally speaks numbers and other keys as they are pressed so that blind students can independently perform calculations. : This interactive talking globe verbally provides information about geographic locations, including the name of the location, its population, its local time, its climate, and more. The globe also plays the National Anthems for the different countries and has a pullout platform containing the map of the United States. paper version a   Today’s classroom challenges teachers to meet the needs of students who come from diverse backgrounds. For some students, this diversity is exhibited in the form of a disability. According to NCES, 56.8 percent of students with disabilities are included in the general education classroom. Students who are blind or visually impaired are an important subset of these students because 60.1 percent of them are educated in the general education classroom (table section). Knowing these students and their needs will enable teachers to provide them with an enriched and positive learning outcome. In the general education classroom, students who are blind use technology to take notes, to access and use diagrams and other printed information either tactually, in auditory form, or by having the needed information produced in large print, and to understand class content and complete assignments. First, it is important to understand what blindness is and how students who are blind use their vision because this will enable teachers to match the technology with the needs of individual students who happen to be blind. According to the Iowa Department for the Blind, Legal blindness occurs when a person has central visual acuity (vision that allows a person to see straight ahead of them) of 20/200 or less in his or her better eye with correction. With 20/200 visual acuity, a person can see at 20 feet, what a person with 20/20 vision sees at 200 feet. In determining legal blindness, visual field (the part of a person's vision that enables them to see what is happening to the side of them) is also considered. A visual field of 20 degrees or less is considered to be legally blind (What is the Legal Definition of Blindness section) I would like to expand this definition to include the inability to see well enough to accomplish a task safely, effectively, and efficiently because some students may not be legally blind, but these students may find it difficult to perform certain tasks in certain situations or some of these students may have a visual impairment, but one that is undiagnosed. For example, a student may find it difficult to use vision for performing a task in a dimly lit area. It is necessary for teachers to identify these students so that their needs, including technology needs, can be discussed and implemented. Finally, it is important for classroom teachers to realize that vision ranges from total blindness to full vision, and the amount of vision a student possesses can be anywhere on the continuum. Therefore, when utilizing technology within the classroom, it will be important for teachers to know the level of vision of students so that they can apply this to the learning environment. Also, it is important to realize that students closer to the end of total blindness do not have fewer abilities than do students closer to the end of full vision. It is the techniques students use to perform tasks that should be the focus when assessing how students learn and how and when students should use technology. Technology is specific for and adapted for different tasks. YourDictionary.com defines technology as: 1. the science or study of the practical or industrial arts, applied sciences, etc. 2. the terms used in a science, etc.; technical terminology 3. applied science 4. a method, process, etc. for handling a specific technical problem 5. the system by which a society provides its members with those things needed or desired (technology definition section). According to [], accommodations are changes to classroom environments and assignments so that students with disabilities can be successful within the classroom (Objectives section). Therefore, technology used in the classroom for students who are blind are part of the accommodations these students need in order to be successful. Cavanaugh claims, “The Technology-Related Assistance for Individual with Disabilities Act of 1998 (PL 100-407) gave the U.S. the first legal definition of assistive technology devices and services. An assistive technology device was defined as � any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. � An assistive technology service was described as � any service that directly assists an individual with a disability in selection, acquisition or use of an assistive technology service“ (Assistive Technology section). In addition, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) emphasizes that technology can be costly or inexpensive, and it can range from low tech devices to high tech devices. Some of these devices specific for students who are blind or visually impaired may include: With such an array of Technology, it is key for teachers to match a specific type of technology with an individual student who is blind. In order to do this, it is necessary to examine several factors, including the subject being taught, the teacher’s teaching style, the ability for the technology to be utilized without disrupting other students, the type of learning environment, and the students individual needs, including the needs addressed in the student’s Individualized Education Program or IEP. For a Geography lesson, for example, a general education teacher may find it beneficial to teach a student who is blind by using a talking globe while in a math lesson the teacher may choose to enable the students to learn by using an abacus. In both classes, the student may use wiki sticks to create tactile lines and/or an audio device, such as a Victor Reader Stream, to record the class for later study. An English class may make it necessary for a student who is blind to use a computer with screen reader software installed on it to take notes, perform research, and walk through the various steps in the writing process. Teaching style is important because small group work and whole group work will require differing needs. In a large group, students may be able to simply use a note taker or Braille writing device to take notes, but in small group work, the student may need various other instruments such as a Braille or Talking Stopwatch or a talking thermometer. A nearby stand to hold technology so that it is not damaged if students are working with liquids or in other hazardous situation, such as limited space, that could damage the equipment may also be necessary. Some technology, such as a Perkins Brailler, may produce loud noise that could disrupt the other students in the classroom, and so the type of note taking equipment to use should be part of the consideration when choosing appropriate technology to utilize in the classroom. A PAC Mate, a PDA device that can include software on it such as a pocket-sized version of Microsoft Word, may be a better option, and a Braille display may be used with this piece of technology so that students can read and correct their work. In addition, this device is portable, and files contained on it can be transferred to a desktop computer for printing in print or for embossing into Braille via a Braille translation program, such as Duxbury. The learning environment may benefit or challenge a student who is blind, depending on its arrangement and the lighting it provides. Glare on computer screens may make it difficult for some students to see the screen. Some students function better if a black background is used with white text while other students function better with a bright background and dark text, and so it is crucial for the teacher to be aware of this when using overheads and other types of equipment that output text onto a screen. One way to match appropriate technology to students who are blind is to follow the instructions contained in the student’s IEP because this plan will address specific needs for the child and goals of the child’s parents and others. However, keep in mind that if teachers notice students having difficulty using a particular piece of technology due to lack of vision or because the student is not being challenged, a meeting should be scheduled to adjust the IEP for that student. In conclusion, teachers should be aware that students who are blind are more likely to be educated in the general education classroom than in a separate setting. Therefore, teachers should be aware of how these students learn and the various types of technology and differing methods for using such technology in order to insure these students receive the most appropriate education.
 *  Eyeglasses
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Large-print books
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Books on tape
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Magnifying glass
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Slate and Braille stylus
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Stencil
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Tape recorder
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Cassettes
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Stereo headphones
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Lighting contrasts
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Adapted paper (e.g., raised surfaces, highlighted lines, various colors, sizes)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Pen lights
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Calculator with large keys or large display
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Talking calculators
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Self-sticking notes (such as Post-It <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">� notes)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Highlighters
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Color-blind aides
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille writer (to take notes, store information, print in various formats)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille translation software (translates inputted text that can be Brailled)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille printer
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Computer with speech output or feedback
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Operating system special-accessibility options (screen enlargement, adjustment of keyboard, sound, display, mouse)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Closed-circuit television
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Computer-screen magnifiers
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Letter- or word-magnification software
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Glare-reduction screens
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Talking electronic dictionary, thesaurus, spell checker
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Video magnifiers
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Voice-output screen-reading software
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Voice amplification or voice projector
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Screen readers (Assistive Technology to Meet K-12 Student Needs).

References Fast Facts [] Legal Definition of Blindness | Iowa Department for the Blind [] ACCOMMODATION STRATEGIES [] technology - Definition of technology at YourDictionary.com [] Preparing Teachers for the Inclusion ClassroOm [] Assistive Technology to Meet K–12 Needs []

paper version b

Today’s classroom challenges teachers to meet the needs of students who come from diverse backgrounds. For some students, this diversity is exhibited in the form of a disability. According to NCES, 56.8 percent of students with disabilities are included in the general education classroom. Students who are blind or visually impaired are an important subset of these students because 60.1 percent of them are educated in the general education classroom (table section). Knowing these students and their needs will enable teachers to provide them with an enriched and positive learning outcome. In the general education classroom, students who are blind use technology to take notes, to access and use diagrams and other printed information either tactually, in auditory form, or by having the needed information produced in large print, and to understand class content and complete assignments. First, it is important to understand what blindness is and how students who are blind use their vision because this will enable teachers to match the technology with the needs of individual students who happen to be blind. According to the Iowa Department for the Blind, <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica','sans-serif';">Legal blindness occurs when a person has central visual acuity (vision that allows a person to see straight ahead of them) of 20/200 or less in his or her better eye with correction. With 20/200 visual acuity, a person can see at 20 feet, what a person with 20/20 vision sees at 200 feet. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica','sans-serif';">In determining legal blindness, visual field (the part of a person's vision that enables them to see what is happening to the side of them) is also considered. A visual field of 20 degrees or less is considered to be legally blind (What is the Legal Definition of Blindness section) This definition may be expanded to include the inability to see well enough to accomplish a task safely, effectively, and efficiently because some students may not be legally blind, but these students may find it difficult to perform certain tasks in certain situations or some of these students may have a visual impairment, but one that is undiagnosed. For example, a student may find it difficult to use vision for performing a task in a dimly lit area. It is necessary for teachers to identify these students so that their needs, including technology needs, can be discussed and implemented. Finally, it is important for classroom teachers to realize that vision ranges from total blindness to full vision, and the amount of vision a student possesses can be anywhere on the continuum. Therefore, when utilizing technology within the classroom, it will be important for teachers to know the level of vision of students so that they can apply this to the learning environment. Also, it is important to realize that students closer to the end of total blindness do not have fewer abilities than do students closer to the end of full vision. It is the techniques students use to perform tasks that should be the focus when assessing how students learn and how and when students should use technology. Technology is specific for and adapted for different tasks. YourDictionary.com defines technology as: <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">1. the science or study of the practical or industrial arts, applied sciences, etc. <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">2. the terms used in a science, etc.; technical terminology <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">3. applied science <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">4. a method, process, etc. for handling a specific technical problem <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">5. the system by which a society provides its members with those things needed or desired (technology definition section). According to [], accommodations are changes to classroom environments and assignments so that students with disabilities can be successful within the classroom (Objectives section). Therefore, technology used in the classroom for students who are blind are part of the accommodations these students need in order to be successful. Cavanaugh claims, “The Technology-Related Assistance for Individual with Disabilities Act of 1998 (PL 100-407) gave the U.S. the first legal definition of assistive technology devices and services. An assistive technology device was defined as <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif';">� any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif';">� An assistive technology service was described as <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif';">� any service that directly assists an individual with a disability in selection, acquisition or use of an assistive technology service“ (Assistive Technology section). In addition, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) emphasizes that technology can be costly or inexpensive, and it can range from low tech devices to high tech devices. Some of these devices specific for students who are blind or visually impaired may include: With such an array of Technology, it is key for teachers to match a specific type of technology with an individual student who is blind. In order to do this, it is necessary to examine several factors, including the subject being taught, the teacher’s teaching style, the ability for the technology to be utilized without disrupting other students, the type of learning environment, and the students individual needs, including the needs addressed in the student’s Individualized Education Program or IEP. For a Geography lesson, for example, a general education teacher may find it beneficial to teach a student who is blind by using a talking globe while in a math lesson the teacher may choose to enable the students to learn by using an abacus. In both classes, the student may use wiki sticks to create tactile lines and/or an audio device, such as a Victor Reader Stream, to record the class for later study. An English class may make it necessary for a student who is blind to use a computer with screen reader software installed on it to take notes, perform research, and walk through the various steps in the writing process. Teaching style is important because small group work and whole group work will require differing needs. In a large group, students may be able to simply use a note taker or Braille writing device to take notes, but in small group work, the student may need various other instruments such as a Braille or Talking Stopwatch or a talking thermometer. A nearby stand to hold technology so that it is not damaged if students are working with liquids or in other hazardous situation, such as limited space, that could damage the equipment may also be necessary. Some technology, such as a Perkins Brailler, may produce loud noise that could disrupt the other students in the classroom, and so the type of note taking equipment to use should be part of the consideration when choosing appropriate technology to utilize in the classroom. A PAC Mate, a PDA device that can include software on it such as a pocket-sized version of Microsoft Word, may be a better option, and a Braille display may be used with this piece of technology so that students can read and correct their work. In addition, this device is portable, and files contained on it can be transferred to a desktop computer for printing in print or for embossing into Braille via a Braille translation program, such as Duxbury. The learning environment may benefit or challenge a student who is blind, depending on its arrangement and the lighting it provides. Glare on computer screens may make it difficult for some students to see the screen. Some students function better if a black background is used with white text while other students function better with a bright background and dark text, and so it is crucial for the teacher to be aware of this when using overheads and other types of equipment that output text onto a screen. One way to match appropriate technology to students who are blind is to follow the instructions contained in the student’s IEP because this plan will address specific needs for the child and goals of the child’s parents and others. However, keep in mind that if teachers notice students having difficulty using a particular piece of technology due to lack of vision or because the student is not being challenged, a meeting should be scheduled to adjust the IEP for that student. Some recommendations for teachers who work with students who are blind will now be presented so that teachers can teach all students. First, remember to use concrete language when providing instructions and directions to students. Telling students to “look here” as you point to cell c3 in an Excel spreadsheet will not be useful for a student who is blind. All students can be included if you mention the cell to which you are referring. Another recommendation is for teachers to know how to use the technology in a variety of ways. For example, teachers should know keyboard commands for all mouse functions so that they can demonstrate this to students and so they can provide students with meaningful information that will allow students to be successful with technology. In other words, as a teacher, one should be able to manipulate technology in ways that students with disabilities, including students who are blind, manipulate such technology. If teachers learn as much as they can about disabilities and blindness prior to teaching these students, the class will run more smoothly and students will be more successful. Finally, remember that it is always okay to ask for training in areas which you are not familiar, and it is also okay to allow students who are blind to show you how they perform a task using assistive technology if you do not know how to do it yourself. Take time and allow these students to keep up with the class. Your extra descriptions will benefit all students in class, including those who happen to be blind. Following these guidelines and familiarizing yourself with the various types of technology its uses, and knowledge about how to use technology appropriate for blind students will enable you and your students to be successful in the twenty-first century.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Eyeglasses
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Large-print books
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Books on tape
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Magnifying glass
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Slate and Braille stylus
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Stencil
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Tape recorder
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Cassettes
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Stereo headphones
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Lighting contrasts
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Adapted paper (e.g., raised surfaces, highlighted lines, various colors, sizes)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Pen lights
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Calculator with large keys or large display
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Talking calculators
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Self-sticking notes (such as Post-It <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">� notes)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Highlighters
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Color-blind aides
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille writer (to take notes, store information, print in various formats)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille translation software (translates inputted text that can be Brailled)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille printer
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Computer with speech output or feedback
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Operating system special-accessibility options (screen enlargement, adjustment of keyboard, sound, display, mouse)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Closed-circuit television
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Computer-screen magnifiers
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Letter- or word-magnification software
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Glare-reduction screens
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Talking electronic dictionary, thesaurus, spell checker
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Video magnifiers
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Voice-output screen-reading software
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Voice amplification or voice projector
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Screen readers (Assistive Technology to Meet K-12 Student Needs).

References Fast Facts []

Legal Definition of Blindness | Iowa Department for the Blind [] ACCOMMODATION STRATEGIES [] technology - Definition of technology at YourDictionary.com [] Preparing Teachers for the Inclusion ClassroOm [] Assistive Technology to Meet K–12 Needs []

paper version c Today’s classroom challenges teachers to meet the needs of students who come from diverse backgrounds. For some students, this diversity is exhibited in the form of a disability. According to NCES, 56.8 percent of students with disabilities are included in the general education classroom. Students who are blind or visually impaired are an important subset of these students because 60.1 percent of them are educated in the general education classroom (table section). Knowing these students and their needs will enable teachers to provide them with an enriched and positive learning outcome. In the general education classroom, students who are blind use technology to take notes, to access and use diagrams and other printed information either tactually, in auditory form, or by having the needed information produced in large print, and to understand class content and complete assignments. First, it is important to understand what blindness is and how students who are blind use their vision because this will enable teachers to match the technology with the needs of individual students who happen to be blind. According to the Iowa Department for the Blind, <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica','sans-serif';">Legal blindness occurs when a person has central visual acuity (vision that allows a person to see straight ahead of them) of 20/200 or less in his or her better eye with correction. With 20/200 visual acuity, a person can see at 20 feet, what a person with 20/20 vision sees at 200 feet. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica','sans-serif';">In determining legal blindness, visual field (the part of a person's vision that enables them to see what is happening to the side of them) is also considered. A visual field of 20 degrees or less is considered to be legally blind (What is the Legal Definition of Blindness section) This definition may be expanded to include the inability to see well enough to accomplish a task safely, effectively, and efficiently because some students may not be legally blind, but these students may find it difficult to perform certain tasks in certain situations or some of these students may have a visual impairment, but one that is undiagnosed. For example, a student may find it difficult to use vision for performing a task in a dimly lit area. It is necessary for teachers to identify these students so that their needs, including technology needs, can be discussed and implemented. Finally, it is important for classroom teachers to realize that vision ranges from total blindness to full vision, and the amount of vision a student possesses can be anywhere on the continuum. Therefore, when utilizing technology within the classroom, it will be important for teachers to know the level of vision of students so that they can apply this to the learning environment. Also, it is important to realize that students closer to the end of total blindness do not have fewer abilities than do students closer to the end of full vision. It is the techniques students use to perform tasks that should be the focus when assessing how students learn and how and when students should use technology. Technology is specific for and adapted for different tasks. YourDictionary.com defines technology as: <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">1. the science or study of the practical or industrial arts, applied sciences, etc. <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">2. the terms used in a science, etc.; technical terminology <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">3. applied science <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">4. a method, process, etc. for handling a specific technical problem <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 3pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">5. the system by which a society provides its members with those things needed or desired (technology definition section). According to [], accommodations are changes to classroom environments and assignments so that students with disabilities can be successful within the classroom (Objectives section). Therefore, technology used in the classroom for students who are blind are part of the accommodations these students need in order to be successful. Cavanaugh claims, “The Technology-Related Assistance for Individual with Disabilities Act of 1998 (PL 100-407) gave the U.S. the first legal definition of assistive technology devices and services. An assistive technology device was defined as <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif';">� any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif';">� An assistive technology service was described as <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif';">� any service that directly assists an individual with a disability in selection, acquisition or use of an assistive technology service“ (Assistive Technology section). In addition, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) emphasizes that technology can be costly or inexpensive, and it can range from low tech devices to high tech devices. Some of these devices specific for students who are blind or visually impaired may include: With such an array of Technology, it is key for teachers to match a specific type of technology with an individual student who is blind. In order to do this, it is necessary to examine several factors, including the or IEP. For a Geography lesson, for example, a general education teacher may find it beneficial to teach a student who is blind by using a talking globe while in a math lesson the teacher may choose to enable the students to learn by using an abacus. In both classes, the student may use wiki sticks to create tactile lines and/or an audio device, such as a Victor Reader Stream, to record the class for later study. An English class may make it necessary for a student who is blind to use a computer with screen reader software installed on it to take notes, perform research, and walk through the various steps in the writing process. Teaching style is important because small group work and whole group work will require differing needs. In a large group, students may be able to simply use a note taker or Braille writing device to take notes, but in small group work, the student may need various other instruments such as a Braille or Talking Stopwatch or a talking thermometer. A nearby stand to hold technology so that it is not damaged if students are working with liquids or in other hazardous situation, such as limited space, that could damage the equipment may also be necessary. If the teacher demonstrates a piece of equipment or uses a specific manipulative, such as a computer mouse or a model of an electronic heart, he or she should allow the student who is blind or visually impaired to touch it so that they can understand how it is being used. Some technology, such as a Perkins Brailler, may produce loud noise that could disrupt the other students in the classroom, and so the type of note taking equipment to use should be part of the consideration when choosing appropriate technology to utilize in the classroom. A PAC Mate, a PDA device that can include software on it such as a pocket-sized version of Microsoft Word, may be a better option, and a Braille display may be used with this piece of technology so that students can read and correct their work. In addition, this device is portable, and files contained on it can be transferred to a desktop computer for printing in print or for embossing into Braille via a Braille translation program, such as Duxbury. The learning environment may benefit or challenge a student who is blind, depending on its arrangement and the lighting it provides. Glare on computer screens may make it difficult for some students to see the screen. Some students function better if a black background is used with white text while other students function better with a bright background and dark text, and so it is crucial for the teacher to be aware of this when using overheads and other types of equipment that output text onto a screen. The level of noise in the learning environment itself should also be considered so that technology used by students who are blind, such as screenreader software, does not affect the rest of the class, and so that the student who is blind or visually impaired can hear to safely move around the environment and/or hear to use the technology. To match appropriate technology to students who are blind is to follow the instructions contained in the student’s IEP because this plan will address specific needs for the child and goals of the child’s parents and others. However, keep in mind that if teachers notice students having difficulty using a particular piece of technology due to lack of vision or because the student is not being challenged, a meeting should be scheduled to adjust the IEP for that student. Some recommendations for teachers who work with students who are blind will now be presented so that teachers can teach all students. First, remember to use concrete language when providing instructions and directions to students. Telling students to “look here” as you point to cell c3 in an Excel spreadsheet will not be useful for a student who is blind. All students can be included if you mention the cell to which you are referring. Another recommendation is for teachers to know how to use the technology in a variety of ways. For example, teachers should know keyboard commands for all mouse functions so that they can demonstrate this to students and so they can provide students with meaningful information that will allow students to be successful with technology as they simultaneously provide mouse instructions for students with vision. In other words, as a teacher, one should be able to manipulate technology in ways that students with disabilities, including students who are blind, manipulate such technology. If teachers learn as much as they can about disabilities and blindness prior to teaching these students, the class will run more smoothly and students will be more successful. Remember that it is always okay to ask for training in areas which you are not familiar, and it is also okay to allow students who are blind to show you how they perform a task using assistive technology if you do not know how to do it yourself. Take time and allow these students to keep up with the class. Your extra descriptions will benefit all students in class, including those who happen to be blind. Finally, have high expectations for all students, including students who are blind or visually impaired. It is the way students accomplish goals that must be addressed because all students are capable of performing their schoolwork and other tasks. Following these guidelines and familiarizing yourself with the various types of technology, its uses, and knowledge about how to use technology appropriate for blind students will enable you and your students to be successful in the twenty-first century.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Large-print books
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Books on tape
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Magnifying glass
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Slate and Braille stylus
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Stencil
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Tape recorder
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Cassettes
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Stereo headphones
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Lighting contrasts
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Adapted paper (e.g., raised surfaces, highlighted lines, various colors, sizes)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Pen lights
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Calculator with large keys or large display
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Talking calculators
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Self-sticking notes (such as Post-It <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">� notes)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Highlighters
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Color-blind aides
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille writer (to take notes, store information, print in various formats)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille translation software (translates inputted text that can be Brailled)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Braille printer
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Computer with speech output or feedback
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Operating system special-accessibility options (screen enlargement, adjustment of keyboard, sound, display, mouse)
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Closed-circuit television
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Computer-screen magnifiers
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Letter- or word-magnification software
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Glare-reduction screens
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Talking electronic dictionary, thesaurus, spell checker
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Video magnifiers
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Voice-output screen-reading software
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Voice amplification or voice projector
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Screen readers (Assistive Technology to Meet K-12 Student Needs).

References Fast Facts []

Legal Definition of Blindness | Iowa Department for the Blind [] ACCOMMODATION STRATEGIES [] technology - Definition of technology at YourDictionary.com [] Preparing Teachers for the Inclusion ClassroOm [] Assistive Technology to Meet K–12 Needs http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te7assist.htm an attempt at pie chart: || students with disabilities in general ed classroom || students who are blind/bisually impaired in general ed classroom || total including students with full vision || an attempt at my own powerpoint notes: did not work. -will attach power point and excel pie chart to an email for you; still working on paper. I need to do the references pages and make sure references are sighted within the body of the paper. Also, today I will Braille and proofread for errors.
 * 56.8 || 60.1 || 100 ||